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diff --git a/chapter2.md b/chapter2.md index 697966e..fda44ca 100644 --- a/chapter2.md +++ b/chapter2.md @@ -231,334 +231,3 @@ language in green rhetoric: relationships. 4. Apocalyptic language is millenarian and thus promotes destruction. 5. Apocalyptic language is violent and vindictive. - -In the rest of this chapter, I will aim to show that these criticisms would, if -they were applied to the Apocalypse of St John as it was addressed to its -original audience, fail to reflect the radical possibilities of that work. Then, -in chapter 3, I will aim to show that green rhetors even now must make use of -those radical possibilities of apocalyptic language in order to be politically -effective, and suggest some ways how they might do that. - -The first thing to notice is that, while the first three criticisms enumerated -above all assume that apocalyptic language is catastrophic, the Apocalypse -itself is not catastrophic. For St John, there is no impending catastrophe. The -tribulations have already begun, and are largely in the hands of cosmic forces -far bigger than his audience. The exhortation is not to avert the bad thing, but -to endure it. - -Rev 2-3 opens John's vision with Jesus' address to seven churches in Asia. -He exhorts them all to be faithful. For example, to the church in Ephesus, he -implores: - -> I know thy works, and thy labour, and thy patience, and how thou canst not -> bear them which are evil: and thou hast tried them which say they are -> apostles, and are not, and hast found them liars: and hast borne, and hast -> patience, and for my name’s sake hast laboured, and hast not fainted. -> Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee, because thou hast left thy first -> love. Remember therefore from whence thou art fallen, and repent, and do the -> first works; or else I will come unto thee quickly, and will remove thy -> candlestick out of his place, except thou repent. (Rev 2:2-5) - -What are those trials which the churches might be patiently enduring? John -doesn't give us the full picture, but there are windows, such as this complaint -against the church in Pergamum: - -> But I have a few things against thee, because thou hast there them that hold -> the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balac to cast a stumblingblock before the -> children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit -> fornication. (Rev 2:14) - -In contemporary Greek society, temple sacrifices were important civic events, -and upstanding citizens were expected to show face and take the meat which had -been sacrificed. \[CITE SCHOLAR]\ Jews were exempted from eating the meat, but -as early Christian communities sometimes had difficult relationships with local -Jewish leaders, they may have struggled to benefit from the Jewish exemption, -and therefore had to face a serious dilemma in whether or not to eat the meat. -\[CITE SCHOLAR\] John is not the only New Testament author to grapple with this -issue. Paul seems to have taken an irenic approach in 1 Cor 8 and Rom 14, while the -author of the Epistle to the Hebrews suggests a stricter approach in Heb -13:8-16. The reference to 'fornication' in Rev 2:14 may be a literal reference -to fornication, but it may also be symbolic, echoing prophets such as Ezekiel -who used fornication as an image for idol worship. \[CITE SCHOLAR\] - -So it seems that John is taking a hardline stance on the issue of eating food -sacrificed to idols. As Schüssler Fiorenza points out \[CITE\], failing to fully -participate in the imperial cult could be costly, particularly for rich -Christians who had the most to benefit from fitting in to mainstream Greek -society. In this context, it makes sense that John's Jesus has the most praise -for the poorest churches, such as Smyrna and Philadelphia, and the harshest -condemnation for the richest, such as Pergamum and Thyatira \[CITE\]. - -John's stance on food sacrificed to idols also makes sense of the vision of two -beasts in Rev 13. The second beast instructs people to worship an image of the -first, and to receive a mark of the beast on their right hand or forehead. If -they refuse to take the mark, they aren't able to buy or sell. The number of the -beast is 666. The number 666 is most likely a reference to the emperor Nero -\[CITE\], and the references to buying and selling suggest the difficulties a -rich Christian might have had doing business unless they participated fully in -the imperial cult \[CITE\]. - -From this, it seems that the visions John relates are not, or at least not -merely, about an impending catastrophe, but about events which are already -unfolding. John's mythological language, among other things, may have functioned -to situate the local, present contexts of John's audiences within a larger -cosmic context, covering the whole of both space and time. Thus, as Ben -Witherington III puts it: - -> This material is not _just_ about the future, nor should we have expected it -> to be since it is narrative forensic rhetoric meant to prepare and exhort -> John's audience. \[…\] It is hard to escape the impression that John believed -> he was living in the midst of the inauguration of these judgments or put -> another way in the age when the seals were being unsealed. [@ncbc-rev, p. 131] - -What then, of the criticisms of apocalyptic language which followed on the basis -of its supposed catastrophism, that it is fatalistic, neutralises radicalism, -and flattens out power relationships? - -It is true that most of the events of John's vision unfold without much input -from the saints. The saints aren't able to stop the seven seals from being -unsealed, or the seven trumpets from being blown, or the seven goldens bowls of -God's wrath from being poured out. The saints have no part in the fall of -Babylon, and when Satan besieges them, they do not fight him in battle, but -Satan and his army is overthrown by fire from heaven. - -However, it would be wrong to accuse St John of fatalism, and worse still to -accuse him of neutralising radicalism and flattening out power relationships. At -the core of his message is an exhortation to endure. John's promise is that -those who endure will participate in God's final fulfilment of the creation. But -what must be endured is a result of human powers distorting God's creation. This -evil requires a radical subversion of actual power relationships, and John -conceives of just such a subversion, and calls his audience to participate in -that event. - -Andrew Chester [@chaos-new-creation] has explored this idea in detail, noting, -for example, that in Rev 6:12-17, God's life-sustaining creative acts of Gen 1 -are threatened with total annihilation: - -> And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great -> earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon became -> as blood; and the stars of heaven fell unto the earth, even as a fig tree -> casteth her untimely figs, when she is shaken of a mighty wind. And the heaven -> departed as a scroll when it is rolled together; and every mountain and island -> were moved out of their places. And the kings of the earth, and the great men, -> and the rich men, and the chief captains, and the mighty men, and every -> bondman, and every free man, hid themselves in the dens and in the rocks of -> the mountains; and said to the mountains and rocks, Fall on us, and hide us -> from the face of him that sitteth on the throne, and from the wrath of the -> Lamb: for the great day of his wrath is come; and who shall be able to stand? - -The sun and moon blocked out, the stars plucked from their place, the heavens -erased, the land disfigured: the key symbols of God's creation in Gen 1 are -being robbed of their ability to support life. Chester also notes that in -ancient cultures, all these events would have been interpreted as portentous -omens, explaining why the people of the earth all hide, knowing that the day of -the Lamb's wrath is come. - -But, as Chester shows, this disfigurement of the creation is not random. Rev 6 -(and a similar vision in Rev 8) shows that the astral powers which were -worshipped by mainstream Greek society are 'under divine control, and not at the -service of emperors.' Rev 9:1-11 suggests that the supposedly great god of -healing, Apollo, is a master only of tormenting locusts, and is anyway a mere -servant of God's angel. The woman in Rev 12 is presented as having dominion over -the sun, moon, and stars, and thus being superior to Artemis and Isis. Jesus -himself appears with the brightness of the sun and the stars in his hand in Rev -1, suggesting that he is in control of all the gods worshipped by Greeks. -[@chaos-new-creation, p. 344] The big idea: Jesus, the Son of Yahweh, the -creator-God, is Lord, and when people reject him and his life-giving creative -power, they tragically bring death and destruction on themselves and the world. - -> The whole earth, and the seas, already corrupted, polluted, and distorted by -> human wickedness and exploitation, now have divine destruction, desolation -> and despoliation brought on them in a dreadful manner. The scenario thus -> created, repeatedly, is one of utter chaos, with the earth torn apart and made -> into a twisted and terrible mess. It is a dystopian vision of the world as it -> might become – as indeed it inevitably will be if the consequences of human -> wickedness simply take their course. Hence if life is to continue, and be -> sustainable, there has to be radical newness. So also the heavens, corrupted -> in order to serve the ruthless and idolatrous ambitions of the great and -> powerful, now hover on the edge of losing completely what distinguishes -> them – the great lights and source of all life. [@chaos-new-creation, p. 346] - -Fatalistic? Conservative? Far from it. The destructive events of John's vision -are the result of human powers distorting God's creation for their own ends. We -can be complicit and accept the mark of the beast, or we can resist. Those who -resist will conquer, but not in the way of God's enemies, who raise up armies to -fight battles: the saints will conquer through the blood of the Lamb, and win -pride of place in God's new creation, while the nations of the earth flood in to -worship and to receive life and healing. 'It is an ethic for martyrdom,' as John -J. Collins, a leading scholar on biblical apocalyptic, puts it -[@apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 9]. - -What about the accusations that apocalyptic language is destructive, violent, -and vindictive? From the above discussion, it should hopefully be clear that -although John's visions are certainly extremely violent, it is not the case that -John encourages wanton destruction and violence. It is the evil, idolatrous -powers of the world which have disfigured God's good creation, and so long as -they refuse to repent of their destruction and violence, they justly bring -destruction and violence upon themselves. - -Many critics insist that it is impossible to apologise for the violence of -John's Apocalypse. Lorenzo DiTommaso argues that 'apocalypticism is an unhealthy -worldview, particularly in its biblical form. It is inimical to a mature vision -of human destiny, or any social order founded on humanistic ideals. It is -hostile to life on Earth, especially in light of the nature and needs of -contemporary society' [@apocalyptic-other, p. 236; quoted in -@apocalyptic-imagination, Epilogue]. David Frankfurter dismisses attempts to -apologise for the violence of John's Apocalypse as 'canonical special pleading -for a very problematic text' [@sectarian-rage; quoted in -@apocalyptic-imagination, Epilogue]. In his review of scholarship on violence in -the Apocalypse, David Barr admits that 'the Apocalypse shows little concern -about employing images that are both violent and ethically offensive,' which is -'especially problematic in a time when many Christians and Muslims regard each -other as wholly evil, and violent apocalyptic groups have emerged in both -traditions' [@violence-in-apocalypse]. - -On the other hand, it is important to read the violence of John's vision in -the context of the author's social location. As Alan Breck puts it in _Kidnapped_: - -> 'Opinion here or opinion there,' said I, 'it's a kennt thing that Christianity -> forbids revenge.' -> -> 'Ay,' said he, 'it's well seen it was a Campbell taught ye! It would be a -> convenient world for them and their sort, if there was no such a thing as a -> lad and a gun behind a heather bush!' [@kidnapped, chp. 12] - -John wrote from the perspective of the poor and oppressed \[QUOTE FIORENZA\], -exhorting them not to vindictive violence but to resist violent powers and trust -God to deliver justice. So, while apocalypticism can be used to inspire -violence, it can also be used, as John uses it, to inspire resistance to -oppressive regimes. - -\[EXAMPLES OF APOCALYPTICISM IN RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS\] - -So if John's Apocalypse is not catastrophic, and cannot be reduced to the -violence and destruction which it features, how does John use apocalyptic -language to achieve his rhetorical goals? I will focus on three key features: -revealed knowledge, tribulations, and the end times, as well as the use of -mythological language throughout each of these. - -One is the use of revealed knowledge. For biblical scholars, this, along with a -concern with the end times, is a key feature of ancient apocalyptic literature -[@semeia-14-intro]. The book is framed as an epistle – likely a traditional form -for Christians by the time John was writing, following the Pauline models – and -is also presented as prophecy, which was a common feature of early Christian -life [see e.g. @apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 9]. But within those framings, -John recounts a vision. At first, he sees Jesus, who dictates an address to the -seven churches in Asia, and after this, an angel shows him a series of visions -of 'things which must be hereafter' (Rev 4:1). Visions are not a necessary -component of early Christian prophecy, but they do follow the model of works -such as 1 Enoch, Daniel, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and numerous other ancient Jewish and -Christian works, which likewise contain fantastic visions related via a heavenly -intermediary, and is thus regarded by scholars as a marker of the genre, -'apocalypse.' [@apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 1]. - -Why might John have used this genre? While it is perfectly plausible that John -had a genuine visionary experience [@visions-in-apocalyptic-handbook, pp. -115-116], this would still not explain why he chose to publish an account of his -experience using the apocalyptic genre. One reason may be that John inhabited, -as Leonard Thompson described it, a 'cognitive minority' [@thompson-revelation]. - -Early Christian communities led distinctive lives on the basis of exclusive -sources of knowledge: apostolic authority, prophecy, eyewitness testimony, -interpretation of tongues, innovative interpretations of ancient Hebrew -Scriptures. Meanwhile, mainstream Greek society had its own authorities. When -the two came into conflict, Christians would have found themselves wedged -between the pull of their community and the overwhelming weight of majority -epistemic norms. As a result, early Christians would have needed to develop -defensive strategies if their minority cognition were to survive. - -By adopting the form of an apocalyptic prophecy, and, no less, an apocalypse of -Jesus Christ, John claims authority beyond any mainstream Greek -authority. In the course of his apocalypse, he also subtly undermines majority -epistemology. As already explored, he mocks top Greek gods such as Apollo and -Artemis. He also highlights the material benefits on offer for the rich to -collude with Babylon (Rev 18), and highlights the power of Satan to 'deceive' -the nations (Rev 20:7). The cognitive majority might want to dismiss John as a -crackpot. But John can defend himself: they have an interest in lies, their gods -are lies, and they listen to the Devil's lies. - -Thus, the apocalyptic motif of revealed knowledge helps John's rhetoric to -convince his audience. - -A second apocalyptic motif in John's Apocalypse is the theme of tribulations. -Humans, and in particular the saints, experience suffering in John's visions, -but this suffering is not meaningless: it is a test of endurance. Those who -endure, triumph. A crucial part of how this works is what Thompson calls -'nesting contexts,' whereby John 'nests' his audiences' local contexts in Asian -churches inside a bigger, cosmic context \[CITE\]. Their suffering at the hands -of local elites is part of a wider resistance against an idolatrous imperial -cult, and that in turn is just the human face of an eschatological battle -between Jesus and Satan. John's call for his audience to persevere is made more -compelling if he can convince his audience that their struggles are part of a -much bigger fight, and one that, because they're on God's side, they cannot -lose, even if they suffer death. - -Thirdly, like most ancient apocalypses, John's vision explores the end times, -and this feature also works to strengthen his rhetoric. If the tribulations are -to be worth enduring, his audience need to know what it's all for. Thus John -concludes his account of his vision with a utopia in Rev 21-22. - -The New Jerusalem descends from heaven (21:2). It has twelve gates, one for each -tribe of Israel (21:12), signifying that it is a place for all God's people. The -sun and moon, those gods so cherished by the Greeks, are redundant, as are all -temples, and the gates will never be shut, because the city is filled with the -light of God's direct presence, and there is no more night and day (21:23-25). -The nations and their kings, instead of usurping God's place and distorting -God's world, bring their glory to God's city (21:24-26). The tree of life, from -which Adam and Eve were cut off, is open for all to receive healing (22:2). -Instead of the mark of the beast, God's servants will bear the name of God on -their foreheads (22:4). Standing in unresolved tension with this total -redemption, John warns that evildoers will remain outside the city (20:15, -21:7-8,27, 22:14-15). - -Although John's vision is surely mythological, it is not merely fanciful. Given -John's case, made throughout the book, that God is sovereign but the world is -currently distorted by evil, it is natural to conclude that eventually, things -will be transformed, to remove evil and reveal God's perfect plan for his -creation, as he has promised. John's utopian vision, then, although it may not -be an accurate prediction of the future, does function as a way of -mythologically 'naming' the eschaton which God will surely bring about. Rather -than being left with an abstract theological definition, we have a -representative picture. Hope in this, John says, and your hope will not be -disappointed, even if things don't turn out exactly in this way. - -Thus, the way John treats the end times gives his audience hope, a sure grasp of -what it is they are suffering for, and thus encourages them to endure their -tribulations. - -In summary, the apocalyptic form is crucial to the rhetorical force of John's -Apocalypse. By adopting the form of an apocalyptic prophecy, he defends his -cognitive minority community from the overwhelming weight of the cognitive -majority which surrounds them. Through exploring the symbol of tribulations, -John steels his audience for suffering, and reassures those who are already -suffering that their troubles are part of a cosmic context. And with his -treatment of the end times, John inspires his audience with hope that their -sufferings will not be wasted. - -\[TODO: see if next three paras are relevant.\] - -John's apocalyptic imagination uses mythological language to reveal the world of -appearances for what it really is. The ideology of Empire is a pretender God, -and the suffering of the martyrs is in fact God's way of conquering evil. John -may have created a crisis for a people that didn't see one, a people that needed -'waking up'. So, while catastrophism imagines that all humanity approaches the -catastrophe more or less from the same perspective, and thus works to kill -politics, John's apocalyptic imagination imagines precisely the opposite: he -enlivens political criticism and active resistance to dominant structures by -identifying how people relate unequally to them. - -So people today, when they equate apocalypticism with catastrophism, are cutting -out most of the apocalyptic imagination and distorting its message. This is now -new. This is a very traditional move which functions to shut down radical -dissent against dominant structures. - -Meanwhile, those who have read the Apocalypse 'from below' tend to emphasise how -it has a visionary interpretation of the tribulations of this world, and a -visionary expectation of this world being transformed, and use this vision to -motivate movements for transformational social change. - -The apocalyptic form is therefore not the reason that green rhetoric is failing. -As explored in chapter 1, green rhetoric is failing because it is failing to -diagnose the root causes of the problem, present a credible route to a credible -solution, and address an audience that could be persuaded to make a difference. -Were rhetors to solve these problems, they could use apocalyptic effectively. |