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@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN := dissertation.md INTRODUCTION_MARKDOWN := chapter0.md CHAPTER_1_MARKDOWN := chapter1.md CHAPTER_2_MARKDOWN := chapter2.md +CHAPTER_3_MARKDOWN := chapter3.md CHAPTER_4_MARKDOWN := chapter4.md CONCLUSION_MARKDOWN := chapter5.md LOG_MARKDOWN := log.md @@ -69,7 +70,7 @@ $(DISSERTATION_PDF): $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) $(BIBLIOGRAPHY) $(TEMPLATE_FILES) $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) .SILENT: $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) -$(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN): $(DISSERTATION_FRONTMATTER) $(INTRODUCTION_MARKDOWN) $(CHAPTER_1_MARKDOWN) $(CHAPTER_2_MARKDOWN) $(CHAPTER_4_MARKDOWN) $(CONCLUSION_MARKDOWN) +$(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN): $(DISSERTATION_FRONTMATTER) $(INTRODUCTION_MARKDOWN) $(CHAPTER_1_MARKDOWN) $(CHAPTER_2_MARKDOWN) $(CHAPTER_3_MARKDOWN) $(CHAPTER_4_MARKDOWN) $(CONCLUSION_MARKDOWN) echo "---" > $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) cat $(DISSERTATION_FRONTMATTER) >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) echo "---" >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) @@ -80,6 +81,8 @@ $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN): $(DISSERTATION_FRONTMATTER) $(INTRODUCTION_MARKDOWN) $ echo "" >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) cat $(CHAPTER_2_MARKDOWN) >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) echo "" >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) + cat $(CHAPTER_3_MARKDOWN) >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) + echo "" >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) cat $(CHAPTER_4_MARKDOWN) >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) echo "" >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) cat $(CONCLUSION_MARKDOWN) >> $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) @@ -92,6 +95,7 @@ wordcount: $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) echo "Introduction: ~$$(cat $(INTRODUCTION_MARKDOWN) | wc -w)" echo "Chapter 1: ~$$(cat $(CHAPTER_1_MARKDOWN) | wc -w)" echo "Chapter 2: ~$$(cat $(CHAPTER_2_MARKDOWN) | wc -w)" + echo "Chapter 3: ~$$(cat $(CHAPTER_3_MARKDOWN) | wc -w)" echo "Chapter 4: ~$$(cat $(CHAPTER_4_MARKDOWN) | wc -w)" echo "Conclusion: ~$$(cat $(CONCLUSION_MARKDOWN) | wc -w)" echo "Total: ~$$(cat $(DISSERTATION_MARKDOWN) | tail -n +6 | wc -w)" diff --git a/chapter2.md b/chapter2.md index 697966e..fda44ca 100644 --- a/chapter2.md +++ b/chapter2.md @@ -231,334 +231,3 @@ language in green rhetoric: relationships. 4. Apocalyptic language is millenarian and thus promotes destruction. 5. Apocalyptic language is violent and vindictive. - -In the rest of this chapter, I will aim to show that these criticisms would, if -they were applied to the Apocalypse of St John as it was addressed to its -original audience, fail to reflect the radical possibilities of that work. Then, -in chapter 3, I will aim to show that green rhetors even now must make use of -those radical possibilities of apocalyptic language in order to be politically -effective, and suggest some ways how they might do that. - -The first thing to notice is that, while the first three criticisms enumerated -above all assume that apocalyptic language is catastrophic, the Apocalypse -itself is not catastrophic. For St John, there is no impending catastrophe. The -tribulations have already begun, and are largely in the hands of cosmic forces -far bigger than his audience. The exhortation is not to avert the bad thing, but -to endure it. - -Rev 2-3 opens John's vision with Jesus' address to seven churches in Asia. -He exhorts them all to be faithful. For example, to the church in Ephesus, he -implores: - -> I know thy works, and thy labour, and thy patience, and how thou canst not -> bear them which are evil: and thou hast tried them which say they are -> apostles, and are not, and hast found them liars: and hast borne, and hast -> patience, and for my name’s sake hast laboured, and hast not fainted. -> Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee, because thou hast left thy first -> love. Remember therefore from whence thou art fallen, and repent, and do the -> first works; or else I will come unto thee quickly, and will remove thy -> candlestick out of his place, except thou repent. (Rev 2:2-5) - -What are those trials which the churches might be patiently enduring? John -doesn't give us the full picture, but there are windows, such as this complaint -against the church in Pergamum: - -> But I have a few things against thee, because thou hast there them that hold -> the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balac to cast a stumblingblock before the -> children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit -> fornication. (Rev 2:14) - -In contemporary Greek society, temple sacrifices were important civic events, -and upstanding citizens were expected to show face and take the meat which had -been sacrificed. \[CITE SCHOLAR]\ Jews were exempted from eating the meat, but -as early Christian communities sometimes had difficult relationships with local -Jewish leaders, they may have struggled to benefit from the Jewish exemption, -and therefore had to face a serious dilemma in whether or not to eat the meat. -\[CITE SCHOLAR\] John is not the only New Testament author to grapple with this -issue. Paul seems to have taken an irenic approach in 1 Cor 8 and Rom 14, while the -author of the Epistle to the Hebrews suggests a stricter approach in Heb -13:8-16. The reference to 'fornication' in Rev 2:14 may be a literal reference -to fornication, but it may also be symbolic, echoing prophets such as Ezekiel -who used fornication as an image for idol worship. \[CITE SCHOLAR\] - -So it seems that John is taking a hardline stance on the issue of eating food -sacrificed to idols. As Schüssler Fiorenza points out \[CITE\], failing to fully -participate in the imperial cult could be costly, particularly for rich -Christians who had the most to benefit from fitting in to mainstream Greek -society. In this context, it makes sense that John's Jesus has the most praise -for the poorest churches, such as Smyrna and Philadelphia, and the harshest -condemnation for the richest, such as Pergamum and Thyatira \[CITE\]. - -John's stance on food sacrificed to idols also makes sense of the vision of two -beasts in Rev 13. The second beast instructs people to worship an image of the -first, and to receive a mark of the beast on their right hand or forehead. If -they refuse to take the mark, they aren't able to buy or sell. The number of the -beast is 666. The number 666 is most likely a reference to the emperor Nero -\[CITE\], and the references to buying and selling suggest the difficulties a -rich Christian might have had doing business unless they participated fully in -the imperial cult \[CITE\]. - -From this, it seems that the visions John relates are not, or at least not -merely, about an impending catastrophe, but about events which are already -unfolding. John's mythological language, among other things, may have functioned -to situate the local, present contexts of John's audiences within a larger -cosmic context, covering the whole of both space and time. Thus, as Ben -Witherington III puts it: - -> This material is not _just_ about the future, nor should we have expected it -> to be since it is narrative forensic rhetoric meant to prepare and exhort -> John's audience. \[…\] It is hard to escape the impression that John believed -> he was living in the midst of the inauguration of these judgments or put -> another way in the age when the seals were being unsealed. [@ncbc-rev, p. 131] - -What then, of the criticisms of apocalyptic language which followed on the basis -of its supposed catastrophism, that it is fatalistic, neutralises radicalism, -and flattens out power relationships? - -It is true that most of the events of John's vision unfold without much input -from the saints. The saints aren't able to stop the seven seals from being -unsealed, or the seven trumpets from being blown, or the seven goldens bowls of -God's wrath from being poured out. The saints have no part in the fall of -Babylon, and when Satan besieges them, they do not fight him in battle, but -Satan and his army is overthrown by fire from heaven. - -However, it would be wrong to accuse St John of fatalism, and worse still to -accuse him of neutralising radicalism and flattening out power relationships. At -the core of his message is an exhortation to endure. John's promise is that -those who endure will participate in God's final fulfilment of the creation. But -what must be endured is a result of human powers distorting God's creation. This -evil requires a radical subversion of actual power relationships, and John -conceives of just such a subversion, and calls his audience to participate in -that event. - -Andrew Chester [@chaos-new-creation] has explored this idea in detail, noting, -for example, that in Rev 6:12-17, God's life-sustaining creative acts of Gen 1 -are threatened with total annihilation: - -> And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great -> earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon became -> as blood; and the stars of heaven fell unto the earth, even as a fig tree -> casteth her untimely figs, when she is shaken of a mighty wind. And the heaven -> departed as a scroll when it is rolled together; and every mountain and island -> were moved out of their places. And the kings of the earth, and the great men, -> and the rich men, and the chief captains, and the mighty men, and every -> bondman, and every free man, hid themselves in the dens and in the rocks of -> the mountains; and said to the mountains and rocks, Fall on us, and hide us -> from the face of him that sitteth on the throne, and from the wrath of the -> Lamb: for the great day of his wrath is come; and who shall be able to stand? - -The sun and moon blocked out, the stars plucked from their place, the heavens -erased, the land disfigured: the key symbols of God's creation in Gen 1 are -being robbed of their ability to support life. Chester also notes that in -ancient cultures, all these events would have been interpreted as portentous -omens, explaining why the people of the earth all hide, knowing that the day of -the Lamb's wrath is come. - -But, as Chester shows, this disfigurement of the creation is not random. Rev 6 -(and a similar vision in Rev 8) shows that the astral powers which were -worshipped by mainstream Greek society are 'under divine control, and not at the -service of emperors.' Rev 9:1-11 suggests that the supposedly great god of -healing, Apollo, is a master only of tormenting locusts, and is anyway a mere -servant of God's angel. The woman in Rev 12 is presented as having dominion over -the sun, moon, and stars, and thus being superior to Artemis and Isis. Jesus -himself appears with the brightness of the sun and the stars in his hand in Rev -1, suggesting that he is in control of all the gods worshipped by Greeks. -[@chaos-new-creation, p. 344] The big idea: Jesus, the Son of Yahweh, the -creator-God, is Lord, and when people reject him and his life-giving creative -power, they tragically bring death and destruction on themselves and the world. - -> The whole earth, and the seas, already corrupted, polluted, and distorted by -> human wickedness and exploitation, now have divine destruction, desolation -> and despoliation brought on them in a dreadful manner. The scenario thus -> created, repeatedly, is one of utter chaos, with the earth torn apart and made -> into a twisted and terrible mess. It is a dystopian vision of the world as it -> might become – as indeed it inevitably will be if the consequences of human -> wickedness simply take their course. Hence if life is to continue, and be -> sustainable, there has to be radical newness. So also the heavens, corrupted -> in order to serve the ruthless and idolatrous ambitions of the great and -> powerful, now hover on the edge of losing completely what distinguishes -> them – the great lights and source of all life. [@chaos-new-creation, p. 346] - -Fatalistic? Conservative? Far from it. The destructive events of John's vision -are the result of human powers distorting God's creation for their own ends. We -can be complicit and accept the mark of the beast, or we can resist. Those who -resist will conquer, but not in the way of God's enemies, who raise up armies to -fight battles: the saints will conquer through the blood of the Lamb, and win -pride of place in God's new creation, while the nations of the earth flood in to -worship and to receive life and healing. 'It is an ethic for martyrdom,' as John -J. Collins, a leading scholar on biblical apocalyptic, puts it -[@apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 9]. - -What about the accusations that apocalyptic language is destructive, violent, -and vindictive? From the above discussion, it should hopefully be clear that -although John's visions are certainly extremely violent, it is not the case that -John encourages wanton destruction and violence. It is the evil, idolatrous -powers of the world which have disfigured God's good creation, and so long as -they refuse to repent of their destruction and violence, they justly bring -destruction and violence upon themselves. - -Many critics insist that it is impossible to apologise for the violence of -John's Apocalypse. Lorenzo DiTommaso argues that 'apocalypticism is an unhealthy -worldview, particularly in its biblical form. It is inimical to a mature vision -of human destiny, or any social order founded on humanistic ideals. It is -hostile to life on Earth, especially in light of the nature and needs of -contemporary society' [@apocalyptic-other, p. 236; quoted in -@apocalyptic-imagination, Epilogue]. David Frankfurter dismisses attempts to -apologise for the violence of John's Apocalypse as 'canonical special pleading -for a very problematic text' [@sectarian-rage; quoted in -@apocalyptic-imagination, Epilogue]. In his review of scholarship on violence in -the Apocalypse, David Barr admits that 'the Apocalypse shows little concern -about employing images that are both violent and ethically offensive,' which is -'especially problematic in a time when many Christians and Muslims regard each -other as wholly evil, and violent apocalyptic groups have emerged in both -traditions' [@violence-in-apocalypse]. - -On the other hand, it is important to read the violence of John's vision in -the context of the author's social location. As Alan Breck puts it in _Kidnapped_: - -> 'Opinion here or opinion there,' said I, 'it's a kennt thing that Christianity -> forbids revenge.' -> -> 'Ay,' said he, 'it's well seen it was a Campbell taught ye! It would be a -> convenient world for them and their sort, if there was no such a thing as a -> lad and a gun behind a heather bush!' [@kidnapped, chp. 12] - -John wrote from the perspective of the poor and oppressed \[QUOTE FIORENZA\], -exhorting them not to vindictive violence but to resist violent powers and trust -God to deliver justice. So, while apocalypticism can be used to inspire -violence, it can also be used, as John uses it, to inspire resistance to -oppressive regimes. - -\[EXAMPLES OF APOCALYPTICISM IN RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS\] - -So if John's Apocalypse is not catastrophic, and cannot be reduced to the -violence and destruction which it features, how does John use apocalyptic -language to achieve his rhetorical goals? I will focus on three key features: -revealed knowledge, tribulations, and the end times, as well as the use of -mythological language throughout each of these. - -One is the use of revealed knowledge. For biblical scholars, this, along with a -concern with the end times, is a key feature of ancient apocalyptic literature -[@semeia-14-intro]. The book is framed as an epistle – likely a traditional form -for Christians by the time John was writing, following the Pauline models – and -is also presented as prophecy, which was a common feature of early Christian -life [see e.g. @apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 9]. But within those framings, -John recounts a vision. At first, he sees Jesus, who dictates an address to the -seven churches in Asia, and after this, an angel shows him a series of visions -of 'things which must be hereafter' (Rev 4:1). Visions are not a necessary -component of early Christian prophecy, but they do follow the model of works -such as 1 Enoch, Daniel, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and numerous other ancient Jewish and -Christian works, which likewise contain fantastic visions related via a heavenly -intermediary, and is thus regarded by scholars as a marker of the genre, -'apocalypse.' [@apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 1]. - -Why might John have used this genre? While it is perfectly plausible that John -had a genuine visionary experience [@visions-in-apocalyptic-handbook, pp. -115-116], this would still not explain why he chose to publish an account of his -experience using the apocalyptic genre. One reason may be that John inhabited, -as Leonard Thompson described it, a 'cognitive minority' [@thompson-revelation]. - -Early Christian communities led distinctive lives on the basis of exclusive -sources of knowledge: apostolic authority, prophecy, eyewitness testimony, -interpretation of tongues, innovative interpretations of ancient Hebrew -Scriptures. Meanwhile, mainstream Greek society had its own authorities. When -the two came into conflict, Christians would have found themselves wedged -between the pull of their community and the overwhelming weight of majority -epistemic norms. As a result, early Christians would have needed to develop -defensive strategies if their minority cognition were to survive. - -By adopting the form of an apocalyptic prophecy, and, no less, an apocalypse of -Jesus Christ, John claims authority beyond any mainstream Greek -authority. In the course of his apocalypse, he also subtly undermines majority -epistemology. As already explored, he mocks top Greek gods such as Apollo and -Artemis. He also highlights the material benefits on offer for the rich to -collude with Babylon (Rev 18), and highlights the power of Satan to 'deceive' -the nations (Rev 20:7). The cognitive majority might want to dismiss John as a -crackpot. But John can defend himself: they have an interest in lies, their gods -are lies, and they listen to the Devil's lies. - -Thus, the apocalyptic motif of revealed knowledge helps John's rhetoric to -convince his audience. - -A second apocalyptic motif in John's Apocalypse is the theme of tribulations. -Humans, and in particular the saints, experience suffering in John's visions, -but this suffering is not meaningless: it is a test of endurance. Those who -endure, triumph. A crucial part of how this works is what Thompson calls -'nesting contexts,' whereby John 'nests' his audiences' local contexts in Asian -churches inside a bigger, cosmic context \[CITE\]. Their suffering at the hands -of local elites is part of a wider resistance against an idolatrous imperial -cult, and that in turn is just the human face of an eschatological battle -between Jesus and Satan. John's call for his audience to persevere is made more -compelling if he can convince his audience that their struggles are part of a -much bigger fight, and one that, because they're on God's side, they cannot -lose, even if they suffer death. - -Thirdly, like most ancient apocalypses, John's vision explores the end times, -and this feature also works to strengthen his rhetoric. If the tribulations are -to be worth enduring, his audience need to know what it's all for. Thus John -concludes his account of his vision with a utopia in Rev 21-22. - -The New Jerusalem descends from heaven (21:2). It has twelve gates, one for each -tribe of Israel (21:12), signifying that it is a place for all God's people. The -sun and moon, those gods so cherished by the Greeks, are redundant, as are all -temples, and the gates will never be shut, because the city is filled with the -light of God's direct presence, and there is no more night and day (21:23-25). -The nations and their kings, instead of usurping God's place and distorting -God's world, bring their glory to God's city (21:24-26). The tree of life, from -which Adam and Eve were cut off, is open for all to receive healing (22:2). -Instead of the mark of the beast, God's servants will bear the name of God on -their foreheads (22:4). Standing in unresolved tension with this total -redemption, John warns that evildoers will remain outside the city (20:15, -21:7-8,27, 22:14-15). - -Although John's vision is surely mythological, it is not merely fanciful. Given -John's case, made throughout the book, that God is sovereign but the world is -currently distorted by evil, it is natural to conclude that eventually, things -will be transformed, to remove evil and reveal God's perfect plan for his -creation, as he has promised. John's utopian vision, then, although it may not -be an accurate prediction of the future, does function as a way of -mythologically 'naming' the eschaton which God will surely bring about. Rather -than being left with an abstract theological definition, we have a -representative picture. Hope in this, John says, and your hope will not be -disappointed, even if things don't turn out exactly in this way. - -Thus, the way John treats the end times gives his audience hope, a sure grasp of -what it is they are suffering for, and thus encourages them to endure their -tribulations. - -In summary, the apocalyptic form is crucial to the rhetorical force of John's -Apocalypse. By adopting the form of an apocalyptic prophecy, he defends his -cognitive minority community from the overwhelming weight of the cognitive -majority which surrounds them. Through exploring the symbol of tribulations, -John steels his audience for suffering, and reassures those who are already -suffering that their troubles are part of a cosmic context. And with his -treatment of the end times, John inspires his audience with hope that their -sufferings will not be wasted. - -\[TODO: see if next three paras are relevant.\] - -John's apocalyptic imagination uses mythological language to reveal the world of -appearances for what it really is. The ideology of Empire is a pretender God, -and the suffering of the martyrs is in fact God's way of conquering evil. John -may have created a crisis for a people that didn't see one, a people that needed -'waking up'. So, while catastrophism imagines that all humanity approaches the -catastrophe more or less from the same perspective, and thus works to kill -politics, John's apocalyptic imagination imagines precisely the opposite: he -enlivens political criticism and active resistance to dominant structures by -identifying how people relate unequally to them. - -So people today, when they equate apocalypticism with catastrophism, are cutting -out most of the apocalyptic imagination and distorting its message. This is now -new. This is a very traditional move which functions to shut down radical -dissent against dominant structures. - -Meanwhile, those who have read the Apocalypse 'from below' tend to emphasise how -it has a visionary interpretation of the tribulations of this world, and a -visionary expectation of this world being transformed, and use this vision to -motivate movements for transformational social change. - -The apocalyptic form is therefore not the reason that green rhetoric is failing. -As explored in chapter 1, green rhetoric is failing because it is failing to -diagnose the root causes of the problem, present a credible route to a credible -solution, and address an audience that could be persuaded to make a difference. -Were rhetors to solve these problems, they could use apocalyptic effectively. diff --git a/chapter3.md b/chapter3.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..03d7720 --- /dev/null +++ b/chapter3.md @@ -0,0 +1,332 @@ +## Chapter 3 + +In this chapter, I will aim to show that these criticisms would, if they were +applied to the Apocalypse of St John as it was addressed to its original +audience, fail to reflect the radical possibilities of that work. Then, in +chapter 4, I will aim to show that green rhetors even now must make use of those +radical possibilities of apocalyptic language in order to be politically +effective, and suggest some ways how they might do that. + +The first thing to notice is that, while the first three criticisms enumerated +above all assume that apocalyptic language is catastrophic, the Apocalypse +itself is not catastrophic. For St John, there is no impending catastrophe. The +tribulations have already begun, and are largely in the hands of cosmic forces +far bigger than his audience. The exhortation is not to avert the bad thing, but +to endure it. + +Rev 2-3 opens John's vision with Jesus' address to seven churches in Asia. +He exhorts them all to be faithful. For example, to the church in Ephesus, he +implores: + +> I know thy works, and thy labour, and thy patience, and how thou canst not +> bear them which are evil: and thou hast tried them which say they are +> apostles, and are not, and hast found them liars: and hast borne, and hast +> patience, and for my name’s sake hast laboured, and hast not fainted. +> Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee, because thou hast left thy first +> love. Remember therefore from whence thou art fallen, and repent, and do the +> first works; or else I will come unto thee quickly, and will remove thy +> candlestick out of his place, except thou repent. (Rev 2:2-5) + +What are those trials which the churches might be patiently enduring? John +doesn't give us the full picture, but there are windows, such as this complaint +against the church in Pergamum: + +> But I have a few things against thee, because thou hast there them that hold +> the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balac to cast a stumblingblock before the +> children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit +> fornication. (Rev 2:14) + +In contemporary Greek society, temple sacrifices were important civic events, +and upstanding citizens were expected to show face and take the meat which had +been sacrificed. \[CITE SCHOLAR]\ Jews were exempted from eating the meat, but +as early Christian communities sometimes had difficult relationships with local +Jewish leaders, they may have struggled to benefit from the Jewish exemption, +and therefore had to face a serious dilemma in whether or not to eat the meat. +\[CITE SCHOLAR\] John is not the only New Testament author to grapple with this +issue. Paul seems to have taken an irenic approach in 1 Cor 8 and Rom 14, while the +author of the Epistle to the Hebrews suggests a stricter approach in Heb +13:8-16. The reference to 'fornication' in Rev 2:14 may be a literal reference +to fornication, but it may also be symbolic, echoing prophets such as Ezekiel +who used fornication as an image for idol worship. \[CITE SCHOLAR\] + +So it seems that John is taking a hardline stance on the issue of eating food +sacrificed to idols. As Schüssler Fiorenza points out \[CITE\], failing to fully +participate in the imperial cult could be costly, particularly for rich +Christians who had the most to benefit from fitting in to mainstream Greek +society. In this context, it makes sense that John's Jesus has the most praise +for the poorest churches, such as Smyrna and Philadelphia, and the harshest +condemnation for the richest, such as Pergamum and Thyatira \[CITE\]. + +John's stance on food sacrificed to idols also makes sense of the vision of two +beasts in Rev 13. The second beast instructs people to worship an image of the +first, and to receive a mark of the beast on their right hand or forehead. If +they refuse to take the mark, they aren't able to buy or sell. The number of the +beast is 666. The number 666 is most likely a reference to the emperor Nero +\[CITE\], and the references to buying and selling suggest the difficulties a +rich Christian might have had doing business unless they participated fully in +the imperial cult \[CITE\]. + +From this, it seems that the visions John relates are not, or at least not +merely, about an impending catastrophe, but about events which are already +unfolding. John's mythological language, among other things, may have functioned +to situate the local, present contexts of John's audiences within a larger +cosmic context, covering the whole of both space and time. Thus, as Ben +Witherington III puts it: + +> This material is not _just_ about the future, nor should we have expected it +> to be since it is narrative forensic rhetoric meant to prepare and exhort +> John's audience. \[…\] It is hard to escape the impression that John believed +> he was living in the midst of the inauguration of these judgments or put +> another way in the age when the seals were being unsealed. [@ncbc-rev, p. 131] + +What then, of the criticisms of apocalyptic language which followed on the basis +of its supposed catastrophism, that it is fatalistic, neutralises radicalism, +and flattens out power relationships? + +It is true that most of the events of John's vision unfold without much input +from the saints. The saints aren't able to stop the seven seals from being +unsealed, or the seven trumpets from being blown, or the seven goldens bowls of +God's wrath from being poured out. The saints have no part in the fall of +Babylon, and when Satan besieges them, they do not fight him in battle, but +Satan and his army is overthrown by fire from heaven. + +However, it would be wrong to accuse St John of fatalism, and worse still to +accuse him of neutralising radicalism and flattening out power relationships. At +the core of his message is an exhortation to endure. John's promise is that +those who endure will participate in God's final fulfilment of the creation. But +what must be endured is a result of human powers distorting God's creation. This +evil requires a radical subversion of actual power relationships, and John +conceives of just such a subversion, and calls his audience to participate in +that event. + +Andrew Chester [@chaos-new-creation] has explored this idea in detail, noting, +for example, that in Rev 6:12-17, God's life-sustaining creative acts of Gen 1 +are threatened with total annihilation: + +> And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great +> earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon became +> as blood; and the stars of heaven fell unto the earth, even as a fig tree +> casteth her untimely figs, when she is shaken of a mighty wind. And the heaven +> departed as a scroll when it is rolled together; and every mountain and island +> were moved out of their places. And the kings of the earth, and the great men, +> and the rich men, and the chief captains, and the mighty men, and every +> bondman, and every free man, hid themselves in the dens and in the rocks of +> the mountains; and said to the mountains and rocks, Fall on us, and hide us +> from the face of him that sitteth on the throne, and from the wrath of the +> Lamb: for the great day of his wrath is come; and who shall be able to stand? + +The sun and moon blocked out, the stars plucked from their place, the heavens +erased, the land disfigured: the key symbols of God's creation in Gen 1 are +being robbed of their ability to support life. Chester also notes that in +ancient cultures, all these events would have been interpreted as portentous +omens, explaining why the people of the earth all hide, knowing that the day of +the Lamb's wrath is come. + +But, as Chester shows, this disfigurement of the creation is not random. Rev 6 +(and a similar vision in Rev 8) shows that the astral powers which were +worshipped by mainstream Greek society are 'under divine control, and not at the +service of emperors.' Rev 9:1-11 suggests that the supposedly great god of +healing, Apollo, is a master only of tormenting locusts, and is anyway a mere +servant of God's angel. The woman in Rev 12 is presented as having dominion over +the sun, moon, and stars, and thus being superior to Artemis and Isis. Jesus +himself appears with the brightness of the sun and the stars in his hand in Rev +1, suggesting that he is in control of all the gods worshipped by Greeks. +[@chaos-new-creation, p. 344] The big idea: Jesus, the Son of Yahweh, the +creator-God, is Lord, and when people reject him and his life-giving creative +power, they tragically bring death and destruction on themselves and the world. + +> The whole earth, and the seas, already corrupted, polluted, and distorted by +> human wickedness and exploitation, now have divine destruction, desolation +> and despoliation brought on them in a dreadful manner. The scenario thus +> created, repeatedly, is one of utter chaos, with the earth torn apart and made +> into a twisted and terrible mess. It is a dystopian vision of the world as it +> might become – as indeed it inevitably will be if the consequences of human +> wickedness simply take their course. Hence if life is to continue, and be +> sustainable, there has to be radical newness. So also the heavens, corrupted +> in order to serve the ruthless and idolatrous ambitions of the great and +> powerful, now hover on the edge of losing completely what distinguishes +> them – the great lights and source of all life. [@chaos-new-creation, p. 346] + +Fatalistic? Conservative? Far from it. The destructive events of John's vision +are the result of human powers distorting God's creation for their own ends. We +can be complicit and accept the mark of the beast, or we can resist. Those who +resist will conquer, but not in the way of God's enemies, who raise up armies to +fight battles: the saints will conquer through the blood of the Lamb, and win +pride of place in God's new creation, while the nations of the earth flood in to +worship and to receive life and healing. 'It is an ethic for martyrdom,' as John +J. Collins, a leading scholar on biblical apocalyptic, puts it +[@apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 9]. + +What about the accusations that apocalyptic language is destructive, violent, +and vindictive? From the above discussion, it should hopefully be clear that +although John's visions are certainly extremely violent, it is not the case that +John encourages wanton destruction and violence. It is the evil, idolatrous +powers of the world which have disfigured God's good creation, and so long as +they refuse to repent of their destruction and violence, they justly bring +destruction and violence upon themselves. + +Many critics insist that it is impossible to apologise for the violence of +John's Apocalypse. Lorenzo DiTommaso argues that 'apocalypticism is an unhealthy +worldview, particularly in its biblical form. It is inimical to a mature vision +of human destiny, or any social order founded on humanistic ideals. It is +hostile to life on Earth, especially in light of the nature and needs of +contemporary society' [@apocalyptic-other, p. 236; quoted in +@apocalyptic-imagination, Epilogue]. David Frankfurter dismisses attempts to +apologise for the violence of John's Apocalypse as 'canonical special pleading +for a very problematic text' [@sectarian-rage; quoted in +@apocalyptic-imagination, Epilogue]. In his review of scholarship on violence in +the Apocalypse, David Barr admits that 'the Apocalypse shows little concern +about employing images that are both violent and ethically offensive,' which is +'especially problematic in a time when many Christians and Muslims regard each +other as wholly evil, and violent apocalyptic groups have emerged in both +traditions' [@violence-in-apocalypse]. + +On the other hand, it is important to read the violence of John's vision in +the context of the author's social location. As Alan Breck puts it in _Kidnapped_: + +> 'Opinion here or opinion there,' said I, 'it's a kennt thing that Christianity +> forbids revenge.' +> +> 'Ay,' said he, 'it's well seen it was a Campbell taught ye! It would be a +> convenient world for them and their sort, if there was no such a thing as a +> lad and a gun behind a heather bush!' [@kidnapped, chp. 12] + +John wrote from the perspective of the poor and oppressed \[QUOTE FIORENZA\], +exhorting them not to vindictive violence but to resist violent powers and trust +God to deliver justice. So, while apocalypticism can be used to inspire +violence, it can also be used, as John uses it, to inspire resistance to +oppressive regimes. + +\[EXAMPLES OF APOCALYPTICISM IN RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS\] + +So if John's Apocalypse is not catastrophic, and cannot be reduced to the +violence and destruction which it features, how does John use apocalyptic +language to achieve his rhetorical goals? I will focus on three key features: +revealed knowledge, tribulations, and the end times, as well as the use of +mythological language throughout each of these. + +One is the use of revealed knowledge. For biblical scholars, this, along with a +concern with the end times, is a key feature of ancient apocalyptic literature +[@semeia-14-intro]. The book is framed as an epistle – likely a traditional form +for Christians by the time John was writing, following the Pauline models – and +is also presented as prophecy, which was a common feature of early Christian +life [see e.g. @apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 9]. But within those framings, +John recounts a vision. At first, he sees Jesus, who dictates an address to the +seven churches in Asia, and after this, an angel shows him a series of visions +of 'things which must be hereafter' (Rev 4:1). Visions are not a necessary +component of early Christian prophecy, but they do follow the model of works +such as 1 Enoch, Daniel, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and numerous other ancient Jewish and +Christian works, which likewise contain fantastic visions related via a heavenly +intermediary, and is thus regarded by scholars as a marker of the genre, +'apocalypse.' [@apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 1]. + +Why might John have used this genre? While it is perfectly plausible that John +had a genuine visionary experience [@visions-in-apocalyptic-handbook, pp. +115-116], this would still not explain why he chose to publish an account of his +experience using the apocalyptic genre. One reason may be that John inhabited, +as Leonard Thompson described it, a 'cognitive minority' [@thompson-revelation]. + +Early Christian communities led distinctive lives on the basis of exclusive +sources of knowledge: apostolic authority, prophecy, eyewitness testimony, +interpretation of tongues, innovative interpretations of ancient Hebrew +Scriptures. Meanwhile, mainstream Greek society had its own authorities. When +the two came into conflict, Christians would have found themselves wedged +between the pull of their community and the overwhelming weight of majority +epistemic norms. As a result, early Christians would have needed to develop +defensive strategies if their minority cognition were to survive. + +By adopting the form of an apocalyptic prophecy, and, no less, an apocalypse of +Jesus Christ, John claims authority beyond any mainstream Greek +authority. In the course of his apocalypse, he also subtly undermines majority +epistemology. As already explored, he mocks top Greek gods such as Apollo and +Artemis. He also highlights the material benefits on offer for the rich to +collude with Babylon (Rev 18), and highlights the power of Satan to 'deceive' +the nations (Rev 20:7). The cognitive majority might want to dismiss John as a +crackpot. But John can defend himself: they have an interest in lies, their gods +are lies, and they listen to the Devil's lies. + +Thus, the apocalyptic motif of revealed knowledge helps John's rhetoric to +convince his audience. + +A second apocalyptic motif in John's Apocalypse is the theme of tribulations. +Humans, and in particular the saints, experience suffering in John's visions, +but this suffering is not meaningless: it is a test of endurance. Those who +endure, triumph. A crucial part of how this works is what Thompson calls +'nesting contexts,' whereby John 'nests' his audiences' local contexts in Asian +churches inside a bigger, cosmic context \[CITE\]. Their suffering at the hands +of local elites is part of a wider resistance against an idolatrous imperial +cult, and that in turn is just the human face of an eschatological battle +between Jesus and Satan. John's call for his audience to persevere is made more +compelling if he can convince his audience that their struggles are part of a +much bigger fight, and one that, because they're on God's side, they cannot +lose, even if they suffer death. + +Thirdly, like most ancient apocalypses, John's vision explores the end times, +and this feature also works to strengthen his rhetoric. If the tribulations are +to be worth enduring, his audience need to know what it's all for. Thus John +concludes his account of his vision with a utopia in Rev 21-22. + +The New Jerusalem descends from heaven (21:2). It has twelve gates, one for each +tribe of Israel (21:12), signifying that it is a place for all God's people. The +sun and moon, those gods so cherished by the Greeks, are redundant, as are all +temples, and the gates will never be shut, because the city is filled with the +light of God's direct presence, and there is no more night and day (21:23-25). +The nations and their kings, instead of usurping God's place and distorting +God's world, bring their glory to God's city (21:24-26). The tree of life, from +which Adam and Eve were cut off, is open for all to receive healing (22:2). +Instead of the mark of the beast, God's servants will bear the name of God on +their foreheads (22:4). Standing in unresolved tension with this total +redemption, John warns that evildoers will remain outside the city (20:15, +21:7-8,27, 22:14-15). + +Although John's vision is surely mythological, it is not merely fanciful. Given +John's case, made throughout the book, that God is sovereign but the world is +currently distorted by evil, it is natural to conclude that eventually, things +will be transformed, to remove evil and reveal God's perfect plan for his +creation, as he has promised. John's utopian vision, then, although it may not +be an accurate prediction of the future, does function as a way of +mythologically 'naming' the eschaton which God will surely bring about. Rather +than being left with an abstract theological definition, we have a +representative picture. Hope in this, John says, and your hope will not be +disappointed, even if things don't turn out exactly in this way. + +Thus, the way John treats the end times gives his audience hope, a sure grasp of +what it is they are suffering for, and thus encourages them to endure their +tribulations. + +In summary, the apocalyptic form is crucial to the rhetorical force of John's +Apocalypse. By adopting the form of an apocalyptic prophecy, he defends his +cognitive minority community from the overwhelming weight of the cognitive +majority which surrounds them. Through exploring the symbol of tribulations, +John steels his audience for suffering, and reassures those who are already +suffering that their troubles are part of a cosmic context. And with his +treatment of the end times, John inspires his audience with hope that their +sufferings will not be wasted. + +\[TODO: see if next three paras are relevant.\] + +John's apocalyptic imagination uses mythological language to reveal the world of +appearances for what it really is. The ideology of Empire is a pretender God, +and the suffering of the martyrs is in fact God's way of conquering evil. John +may have created a crisis for a people that didn't see one, a people that needed +'waking up'. So, while catastrophism imagines that all humanity approaches the +catastrophe more or less from the same perspective, and thus works to kill +politics, John's apocalyptic imagination imagines precisely the opposite: he +enlivens political criticism and active resistance to dominant structures by +identifying how people relate unequally to them. + +So people today, when they equate apocalypticism with catastrophism, are cutting +out most of the apocalyptic imagination and distorting its message. This is now +new. This is a very traditional move which functions to shut down radical +dissent against dominant structures. + +Meanwhile, those who have read the Apocalypse 'from below' tend to emphasise how +it has a visionary interpretation of the tribulations of this world, and a +visionary expectation of this world being transformed, and use this vision to +motivate movements for transformational social change. + +The apocalyptic form is therefore not the reason that green rhetoric is failing. +As explored in chapter 1, green rhetoric is failing because it is failing to +diagnose the root causes of the problem, present a credible route to a credible +solution, and address an audience that could be persuaded to make a difference. +Were rhetors to solve these problems, they could use apocalyptic effectively. diff --git a/chapter4.md b/chapter4.md index 07be2d6..1e2b093 100644 --- a/chapter4.md +++ b/chapter4.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ ## Chapter 4 -In the previous two chapters, I've explored how and why contemporary green +In the previous three chapters, I've explored how and why contemporary green rhetoric is too often failing, and argued that the apocalyptic form is not one of the root causes. In this chapter, I aim to show that in order for green rhetoric to succeed, it must imitate some of the rhetorical strategies of the |