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1 files changed, 36 insertions, 38 deletions

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@@ -17,16 +17,16 @@ can also imply that human action is irrelevant, or encourage audiences to put
 their hope in 'savior figures such as inventors, scientists, or governments who
 might rescue humanity in the nick of time.' [@flannery-2024, pp. 209-210]
 
-Flannery's critique would imply that green rhetors ought to avoid apocalyptic
-language. This conclusion rests on two key premises: one, that apocalyptic
+Flannery's critique implies that green rhetors ought to avoid apocalyptic
+language. Her conclusion rests on two key premises: one, that apocalyptic
 language is catastrophic in the same way which leads to fatalism, conservatism
-and post-politics as described in the previous chapter; and two, that
+and the 'death of politics' as described in the previous chapter; and two, that
 catastrophe is the dominant effective symbol associated with apocalyptic
 language.
 
 In what remains of this chapter, I will argue that in the case of the Apocalypse
 of John, by far the dominant model of apocalyptic literature in the
-post-Christendom West, these criticisms do not cut. For John and his historical
+post-Christendom West, these criticisms do not bear weight. For John and his historical
 audience, John's visions of catastrophe were essential to his critique of the
 Roman Empire. In contrast to the accusations of fatalism, conservatism and
 death-of-politics levelled against contemporary green catastrophism, John's
@@ -93,13 +93,13 @@ resisting the imperial cult, makes sense of his catastrophic visions, such as
 the one of the two beasts in Rev 13. The second beast instructs people to
 worship an image of the first, and to receive a mark of the beast on their right
 hand or forehead. If they refuse to take the mark, they aren't able to buy or
-sell. The number of the beast is 666. The number 666 is most likely a reference
+sell. The number of the beast -- 666 -- is most likely a reference
 to the emperor Nero [@rowland-rev, p. 114], and the references to buying and
 selling suggest the difficulties a rich Christian might have had doing business
 unless they participated fully in the imperial cult [@roloff-rev, pp. 164-165].
 
-From this, it seems that the visions John relates are not, or at least not
-merely, about an impending catastrophe which he wants his audience to work to
+From this, it seems that the visions John relates are not
+about an impending catastrophe which he wants his audience to work to
 avoid, but about a catastrophe -- perhaps, as Leonard Thompson
 [@thompson-revelation, pp. 27-28] suggests, a catastrophe only visible as a
 catastrophe from John's apocalyptic perspective -- which is already unfolding,
@@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ servant of God's angel. The woman in Rev 12 is presented as having dominion over
 the sun, moon, and stars, and thus being superior to Artemis and Isis. Jesus
 himself appears with the brightness of the sun and the stars in his hand in Rev
 1, suggesting that he is in control of all the gods worshipped by Greeks.
-[@chaos-new-creation, p. 344] The big idea: Jesus, the Son of Yahweh, the
+The big idea: Jesus, the Son of Yahweh, the
 creator-God, is Lord, and when people reject him and his life-giving creative
 power, they tragically bring death and destruction on themselves and the world.
 
@@ -181,18 +181,17 @@ radical social movements – for better and for worse – continually throughout
 Christian history. The Gregorian reforms, the Lombards, the Hussites, the
 Lutherans, the Diggers, Columbus and the American 'Founding Fathers,' the
 French, American and Haitian Revolutions, the numerous evangelical revivals, the
-'spectre' of Communism, the rise of National Socialism, and today's
-environmental movement – all have been associated with apocalyptic forms of
-language.
+'spectre' of Communism, the rise of National Socialism, the civil rights
+movement, and today's environmental movement – all have been associated with
+apocalyptic forms of language.
 
 So if the catastrophism of John's Apocalypse is essential to the success of his
 rhetoric, how else does John use apocalyptic language to achieve his rhetorical
 goals? I will focus on three key features: revealed knowledge, tribulation
 discourse, and end-time speculation.
 
-One is the use of revealed knowledge. For biblical scholars, this, along with a
-concern with the end times, is a key feature of ancient apocalyptic literature
-[@semeia-14-intro]. The Apocalypse is John's account of a vision he experienced.
+One is the use of revealed knowledge.
+The Apocalypse is John's account of a vision he experienced.
 At first, he sees Jesus, who dictates an address to the seven churches in Asia,
 and after this, an angel shows him a series of visions of 'things which must be
 hereafter' (Rev 4:1). This literary structure follows the model of works such as
@@ -200,7 +199,7 @@ hereafter' (Rev 4:1). This literary structure follows the model of works such as
 Christian works, which likewise contain fantastic visions related via a heavenly
 intermediary. Modern biblical scholars mostly agree that this is a key marker of
 an ancient literary genre, which, incidentally, they label 'apocalypse'
-[@apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 1].
+[@semeia-14-intro; @apocalyptic-imagination, chp. 1].
 
 Why might John have used this genre? While it is perfectly plausible that John
 had a genuine visionary experience [@visions-in-apocalyptic-handbook, pp.
@@ -216,41 +215,39 @@ Early Christian communities led distinctive lives on the basis of exclusive
 sources of knowledge: apostolic authority, prophecy, eyewitness testimony,
 interpretation of tongues, innovative interpretations of ancient Hebrew
 Scriptures. Meanwhile, mainstream Greek society had its own authorities. When
-the two came into conflict, Christians would have found themselves wedged
-between the pull of their community and the overwhelming weight of majority
-epistemic norms. As a result, early Christians would have needed to develop
-defensive strategies if their minority cognition were to survive.
+the two came into conflict, Christians would have found the overwhelming might
+of majority epistemic norms tearing them from their roots in their minority
+community. As a result, early Christians would have needed to develop defensive
+strategies if their minority cognition were to survive.
 
 By adopting the form of an apocalyptic prophecy, and, no less, an apocalypse of
-Jesus Christ, John claims authority beyond any mainstream Greek authority. In
-the course of his apocalypse, he also subtly undermines majority epistemology.
-As already explored, he mocks top Greek gods such as Apollo and Artemis. He also
-highlights the material benefits on offer for the rich to collude with Babylon
-(Rev 18), and highlights the power of Satan to 'deceive' the nations (Rev 20:7).
-The cognitive majority might want to dismiss John as a crackpot. But John can
-defend himself: they have an interest in lies, their gods are lies, and they
-listen to the Devil's lies. Thus, the apocalyptic motif of revealed knowledge
-helps John's rhetoric to convince his audience.
-
-A second apocalyptic motif in John's Apocalypse is the theme of tribulations.
+Jesus Christ, John claims authority no Greek authority can challenge (for a
+member of the Christian minority). In the course of his apocalypse, he also
+subtly undermines majority epistemology. As already explored, he mocks top Greek
+gods such as Apollo and Artemis. He also highlights the material benefits on
+offer for the rich to collude with Babylon (Rev 18), and highlights the power of
+Satan to 'deceive' the nations (Rev 20:7). Thus, the apocalyptic motif of
+revealed knowledge helps John's rhetoric to convince his audience.
+
+A second apocalyptic motif in John's Apocalypse is the motif of tribulations.
 Humans, and in particular the saints, experience suffering in John's visions,
 but this suffering is not meaningless: it is a test of endurance. Those who
 endure, triumph. A crucial part of how this works is what Thompson calls
 'nesting contexts,' whereby John 'nests' his audiences' local contexts in Asian
 churches inside a bigger, cosmic context [@thompson-revelation, pp. 5-6]. Their
 suffering at the hands of local elites is part of a wider resistance against an
-idolatrous imperial cult, and that in turn is just the human face of an
+idolatrous imperial cult, and that in turn is just the visible surface layer of an
 eschatological battle between Jesus and Satan. John's call for his audience to
-persevere is made more compelling if he can convince his audience that their
+persevere is made more compelling by working to convince his audience that their
 struggles are part of a much bigger fight, and one that, because they're on
 God's side, they cannot lose, even if they suffer death along with the 'Lamb who
 was slain.'
 
 Thirdly, like most ancient apocalypses, John's vision explores the end times,
 and this feature also works to strengthen his rhetoric. If the tribulations are
-to be worth enduring, his audience need to know what it's all for. Thus John
-concludes his account of his vision with a utopia in Rev 21-22.
+to be worth enduring, his audience need to know what it's all for.
 
+For this reason, John concludes his account of his vision with a utopia in Rev 21-22.
 The New Jerusalem descends from heaven (21:2). It has twelve gates, one for each
 tribe of Israel (21:12), signifying that it is a place for all God's people. The
 sun and moon, those gods so cherished by the Greeks, are redundant, as are all
@@ -285,10 +282,11 @@ tribulations.
 
 In summary, the apocalyptic form is crucial to the rhetorical force of John's
 Apocalypse. The catastrophic aspects of his vision work against, not for,
-fatalism, conservatism, and post-politics. By adopting the form of an
+fatalism, conservatism, and the 'death of politics.' By adopting the form of an
 apocalyptic prophecy, he defends his cognitive minority community from the
 overwhelming weight of the cognitive majority which surrounds them. Through
 exploring the symbol of tribulations, John steels his audience for suffering,
-and reassures those who are already suffering that their troubles are part of a
-cosmic context. And with his treatment of the end times, John inspires his
-audience with hope that their sufferings will not be wasted.
+and reassures those who are already suffering that their local troubles are part
+of a much bigger cosmic context. And with his treatment of the end times, John
+inspires his audience with hope -- unscientific, but in its own way realistic --
+that their sufferings will not be wasted.